[Manpreet]

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Haemorrhoids, also known as piles, is the inflammation or swelling of veins in and around the rectum and / or anus. It can be regarded as a type of varicose veins as well. It is of two types – internal haemorrhoids (the swelling of veins inside the rectum) and external hemorrhoids (the swelling of veins outside the anus). It leads to bleeding during bowels, itching in and around the anus and painful bowel movements.

However, it can be treated even at home with changing ones lifestyle if detected early, if the case worsens, one might need some surgery as well.

CAUSES –

· Having diarrhea

· Chronic constipation and sitting for long periods of time for bowels

· Obesity

· Straining bowel movements

· Sometimes, during pregnancy the mother might develop such problems

· Eating low fibrous food

· Drinking less water

· Having anal intercourse

SYMPTOMS –

· Itching and irritation in and around the anus

· Painful bowel movements

· Swelling around the anus

· Bleeding during the bowel movements

· A hard lump near the anus (occasionally)

PREVENTION –

· Drink plenty of water – it leads softening of the stool

· Eating fibrous food – these, too, helps in softening of the stool. It also increases the bulk and creates pressure

· Avoid straining – please avoid holding your breath during constipations. It might feel you are able to pass out the stool but at the cost of your veins as holding breaths creates pressure on the veins which in turn will lead to its inflammation

· Go as you feel the urge – it might happen you are busy in some important task and you avoid going to the washroom while in urge. The urge goes way leading to drying of stool. This hardens them which in turn leads to painful bowel movements

· Avoid long periods of sitting – avoid sitting for period of time and creating pressure to pass out a bowel movement. This creates pressure on the veins.

I hope this helps. Please see a doctor if the condition worsens. However, prevention is better than cure. Start applying the preventive measures to keep you away from any such conditions.

Thank you!

[Manpreet]

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Teeth are present in the buccal cavity. These masticate food, that is, chew food and cut them into smaller parts that can be taken inside through the food pipe. The saliva in the mouth gets mixed with the masticated food and this ball of food is now known as the bolus. It is adviced that food should be chewed properly to avoid any indigestion. The food that gets broken into smaller pieces with saliva mixed in it, has an increased surface area and makes it easier for the digestive juices to act on the food and digest the essential nutrients. These nutrients are then absorbed and the waste materials, in turn, are passed out.

Thus, this was the importance of teeth. Following is the classification of teeth –

Humans have four types of teeth –

1. Incisors

2. Canines

3. Pre molars

4. Molars

Incisors –

These are the pointed teeth present in the front. The teeth generally visible when we smile.

These are used in cutting and biting food.

It is pointed and chisel shaped.

Canines –

These are more pointed than the incisors

They are also used in cutting and tearing of food

In non – vegetarians these are highly pointed as they are required to cut and tear the flesh

pre molars –

the are used for crushing the food, that is, for chewing purposes

these contain 2 cusps and are smaller than molars

these are absent in children

molars –

these mark the ends of the jaws

these contain 4 – 5 cusps

these are required for chewing and crushing of food

the last molars are regarded as wisdom tooth. Don’t go with the name, it does not bring wisdom, but it develops after a certain age, an age where the person is mature and wise, i.e., usually after the age of 17.

numbers –

an adult human being has the following number of teeth

· 8 incisors

· 4 canines

· 8 pre molars

· 12 molars

The formula for calculation of teeth is – (2*1*2*3) / (2*1*2*3) where this marks the half portions of upper and lower jaws.

Thus, this was the classification of teeth in human beings. I hope this helps.

[Manpreet]

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Planck’s constant was devised by a German physicist – Dr. Max Planck.

Planck’s constant is a fundamental physical constant, used in quantum mechanics (the branch of physics dealing with tiny particles that make up matter and the forces involved in their interactions). It is denoted by the letter – ‘h’. it is a proportionality constant with a value 6.62607015 * 10 (to the power minus 34).

Planck – Einstein relation –

The planck – Einstein relation gives the relation between energy carried by a photon and frequency of its associated electromagnetic wave.

E = h*f (where E = energy, h = planck constant and f = frequency )

The S.I. units of h = J.s (Joule – second)

Thus, due to this mass – energy equivalence, Planck’s constant relates mass to frequency.

During calculations, the value of planck constant (h) can be used as 6.6 * 10 (to the power minus 34)

Values of Planck’s constant –

In S.I. units, h = 6.6260715 * 10^-34J.s

In MKS (meter – kilogram – second) system, h = 4.135667662 * 10^-15 eV.s (eV.s = electron volt – second)

In terms of E­_p. t_p, h = 2pi

APPLICATIONS –

Planck’s constant is used in –

· Photoelectric effect, in the formula – E = h * f

· In atomic structure, in the formula for energy of n^th orbit

· In uncertainty principle, in the formula for relation between position and momentum

· In de- Broglie wave equation

I hope this answer helps.

[Manpreet]

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Thyroid is an endocrine gland, mesodermal in origin, present behind the neck. It is brownish in colour and consists of two lobes, both joined by a thyroid isthmus. Each lobe consists of numerous follicles. It makes and stores hormones that regulates the heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature and the rate at which food is converted into energy. Thyroid hormones are essential for the function of every cell in the body.

HORMONES produced by the thyroid gland –

· T₄– known as tetra iodothyroxine

· T₃– known as triiodothyroxine

Together the T₃and T₄are known as thyroxine hormone. These are iodinated derivatives of the amino acid, tyrosine. These are secreted by the follicles of the gland.

FUNCTIONS –

· It controls the basal metabolic rate (BMR) of the body.

· It also controls the physical, sexual and mental growth of the body

· Contributes in the kidney mechanism and formation of urine

· Checks over the maintenance of water – electrolyte balance of the body

· Helps in maintaining a normal body temperature

DISORDERS –

An increase in the levels of thyroxine causes hyperthyroidism whereas a decrease in the levels causes hypothyroidism. Here are a few examples –

1. Cretinism –

· It is a condition occurring in children when the levels of thyroxine reduces before puberty, i.e., it is a condition due to hypothyroidism in kids.

· The child remains dwarf

· Reduced mental development

· Reduced metabolism

· The child shows a Pot belly, dry skin, thick protruding tongue

2. Myxedema (also known as Gull’s Disease) –

· It is a condition encountered by adults due to hypothyroidism

· Oedema / edema, i.e., accumulation of interstitial fluid.

· It causes swelling in the face and the person looks fluffy

· It is marked by low metabolic rate, lethargy, loss of hair, slow heart beat and low body temperature

3. Goitre –

It is caused due to deficiency of iodine. The thyroid gland appears enlarged. It can also be accompanied by cretinism or myxedema.

4. Exophthalmic goitre (also known as Grave’s disease)

· It is a condition caused by hyperthyroidism

· The eye balls appears bulging and it is marked by weight loss, increased BMR and high body temperatures.

This was a summary of thyroid – the gland, its hormones and the deficiency diseases. I hope this helps.

[Manpreet]

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Blood is the fluid connective tissue that acts as the medium to transport nutrients and oxygen from one part to the other in a body. It is known as a connective tissue because of its role in the body, that is, transport of gases and nutrients. As such it connects different parts of the body, hence the category of connective tissue.

Blood consists of two parts – the plasma and the blood elements.

The plasma of the blood consists of all the essential nutrients and substances including proteins, amino acids, nitrogenous substances and wastes, in short everything other than the blood cells.

The blood corpuscles and the platelets comes under the group – the blood elements.

The different types of blood corpuscles are :

1. Red blood cells / erythrocytes –

· These are biconcave in shape

· These lack nucleus and any other organelles

· These help in the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide

· These contain an iron rich product – haemoglobin, that imparts blood its red colour

2. White blood cells / Leucocytes –

· These are colourless cells

· These can be sub divided into granulocytes and agranulocytes

· These contribute in the defence of the body

· The granulocytes includes –

a) Eosinophils

b) Neutrophils

c) Basophils

And the a granulocytes includes –

a) Monocytes

b) Lymphocytes

3. Platelets –

· These are large disc shaped cells

· These contribute in the clotting of the blood

Functions of the blood –

· It supplies oxygen to cells and tissues

· It collects carbon dioxide from the tissues and revert it to the lungs to be exhaled out

· It transports the essential nutrients like amino acids, fatty acids and glucose to cells

· it transports hormones from one part of the body to another

· the white blood cells present in the blood help in defence mechanism of the body

· the platelets help in the clotting of blood and protects the wound from infections

Thus, blood belongs to the category of connective tissues because of its properties and origin. I hope this answer helps.

[Manpreet]

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Being Mentally healthy includes both emotional stability and acting with mindfulness. However, depression, anxiety and stress are never invited by will, it just happens due to overthinking, burdened under loads of work, lacking a healthy lifestyle etc. Thus there are numerous possibilities on how a person loses his mental fitness. Here are some points that might help you regain your mental stability.

1. Meditation – it is the most powerful way to gain back your mental peace. It not only creates a peaceful balance but also strengthens our ability to think and power to concentrate. A daily meditation of 15 – 30 minutes can easily lead us to peace and harmony.

2. Yoga and pranayama are a proven help to these problems –

Get up early in the morning, practice some yoga and pranayama on a daily basis in an open environment. Breathe in the fresh air and exhale your stress out.

3. Don’t dwell on the past – as it is said, let bygones be gone. Don’t stress over emotional memories of the past. Let it go. Don’t stress over the mistakes of the past. It will lead to nothing but a great turmoil of troublesome thoughts in your head. Once you stop thinking about the memories of the past that has been haunting you – you’ll find yourself internally happy with no anxieties.

4. Forgive and forget – keeping a grudge will do no good to you. Let it go!! Holding on to your anger will make it impossible for you to find inner peace. It will only harm you. Let go of the anger, forgive and forget – not for the other person but for your inner peace.

5. Try finding a positive approach of living. Being positive will not just make you feel happy but will also spread positive vibes around you.

These were a few points that can help you maintain or regain your mental peace. Cultivate your thoughts and actions with an effort that helps you remain peaceful. Let go off the worries and troubles of the past or future. Everything’s uncertain but present. Live in the present. Help yourself heal from within. Take a walk. Grab a book and a cup of coffee. Spend some time with yourself. Admire the beauty of nature. Do something that your heart enjoys, may be singing, dancing or painting or anything that brings peace to your mind. Your peace of mind depends on you.

Stay safe

I hope this helps.

[Manpreet]

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The human heart is a four chambered heart. It has two ventricles and two auricles connected through valves. The tricuspid valve present at the junction of the right auricle and right ventricle, whereas the bicuspid valve is present at the junction of left auricle and left ventricle. The four chambered heart helps to purify blood and segregate oxygenated and deoxygenated blood so that the body receives blood in its purest form. It also makes the heart work more efficiently.

· Deoxygenated blood is brought to the heart by vena cava

· It is received by the right auricle of the heart

· Once collected, the right auricle contracts and the blood moves from the right auricle to the right ventricle through the tricuspid valve

· The ventricle contracts and the blood moves to the lungs through the pulmonary artery (the only artery in the human body carrying deoxygenated blood). Its entry is guarded by the semilunar valves

· On reaching the lungs, the blood gets purified, i.e., becomes oxygenated and it moved back to the heart through pulmonary veins (the only vein that carries oxygenated blood)

· The blood enters the left auricle of the heart and then moves to the left ventricle. This junction is guarded by the bicuspid valves

· The left ventricle contracts and the oxygenated blood moves through the aorta outside the heart

· The muscles of the left ventricle is the strongest as it has to pump the blood to aorta which in turn pumps blood through out the body

· The opening of aorta is guarded by aortic valve.

This was the most simplest mechanism of how blood gets purified and pumped throughout the body. However, the mechanism involves much more complex elements of the cardiac cycle.

Thus, this was a summary of how four chambered heart helps in the transport of pure oxygenated blood.

Some organisms
lack a four chambered heart. They have a 3 chambered heart which transports
mixed blood, i.e., a mixture of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood throughout
the body. Similarly, most lower organisms have a two chambered heart that transports
only deoxygenated blood.

I hope this answer helps.

[Manpreet]

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Both, thallophyte and Bryophyta belong to the category of cryptogams of the Kingdom Plantae. These are plant like organisms that do not produce flowers or fruits. Furthermore, they are seedless and reproduce through spores. Their cell walls are made up cellulose and are mainly autotrophs, i.e., produce their own food (like actual plants). Although, both thallophyte and Bryophyta belong to the same category, they do show some differences.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THALLOPHYTES –

· These are non motile organisms

· The plant body consists of thallus

· These are autotrophic and thus, prepare their own food

· They store their food in the form of starch

· These lack vascular systems

· They consist of single celled sex organs

· Examples – lichens, cyanobacteria, fungi

CHARACTERISTICS OF BRYOPHYTA –

· These are also flowerless plants

· The plant body is divided into root like, stem like, leaf like structures

· These live in shady moist environments

· These also lack a true vascular system

· These show alteration of generation, i.e., a true and prominent gametophyte could be seen in the life cycle

· Examples – liverworts and hornworts

· Liverworts – contains thallose like structures and Hornworts possess horn like sporophytes

Following are a few differences between the Bryophytes and Thallophytes –

· Thallophyte, as the name suggests, its body is a thallus whereas the plant body of Bryophyta is divided into stem like, leaf like and root like structures. (mark the word ‘like’ as they are not the real root, stem or leaves)

· Thallophytes live in aquatic environment or on rocks or on snow, whereas Bryophytes can survive only in aquatic environment

· Thallophytes are unicellular, whereas Bryophytes are multi cellular

· Thallophytes do not show any alternation of generations whereas Bryophytes show alternation of generation. They also possess true gametophytes.

· Thallophytes lacks the formation of embryo after fertilization whereas Bryophytes forms embryo after fertilization

This was a summary of the Thallophytes and Bryophytes including their characteristics and differences. I hope this helps.

[Manpreet]

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Chlorophyll is the pigment that gives the green colour to plants. The pigment that helps a plant to prepare its food through photosynthesis.

It occurs in various forms like chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, chlorophyll c, chlorophyll d and chlorophyll e.

STRUCTURE OF CHLOROPHYLL –

· Chlorophyll is present in disc like substances, known as thylakoids that reside in the matrix of the chloroplasts

· The molecule consists of a phytol chain and porphyrin ring

· It has a central magnesium atom surrounded by nitrogen containing rings – porphyrin rings

· From the ring extends a chain, known as phytol chain

· Due to the modifications in the side chains the chlorophyll can be divided into 5 different types, namely chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, chlorophyll c, chlorophyll d and chlorophyll e.

· Chlorophyll a (C55 H72 O5 N4 Mg) and chlorophyll b (C55 H70 O6 N4 Mg) are universal pigments, found in every green plant or organism, even in green algae (cyanobacteria)

· Chlorophyll c (C35 H30 O5 N4 Mg) and chlorophyll d (C54 H70 O6 N4 Mg) are found in different algae (brown and red algae)

· Chlorophyll e (C55 H70 O6 N4 Mg) is found in golden algae

FUNCTIONS –

· Chlorophyll plays the most important role in photosynthesis

· It absorbs the light and transfers the photons to photosystems

· There are two photosystems – photosystem l and photosystem ll

· The transferred photon follows critical mechanisms leading to lysis of water and liberation of oxygen and then formation of numerous compounds through electrochemical chain

The overall equation of photosynthesis is –

6CO₂+ 6H₂O —-> C₆H₁₂O₆+ 6O₂

The reaction looks so simple, that is, reaction of carbon dioxide and water leading to the formation of glucose and liberation of oxygen. However, this reaction is fulfilled by the complex reactions occurring in the chlorophyll that includes photosystems and electron transport chain, movement of electron, splitting of water and conversion of energies. Hence, the complexity of this simple looking equation resides in the chlorophyll.

I hope this answer helps.

[Manpreet]

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THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM –

A hormone is a chemical substance secreted by the endocrine glands of our body. The endocrine glands are ductless glands, that is, their secretions are directly poured into the blood and get transported to the target organs. These help in the chemical coordination and functioning of the body.

Hormones are secreted by endocrine glands, for example- pineal gland, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal gland, pancreas, thymus, parathyroid glands and gonads. Even the heart, liver and kidneys secrete hormones.

The secretion of hormones is majorly regulated by the Hypothalamus. It controls the hormones of the pituitary.

The anterior pituitary secretes hormones such as-

1. Growth hormone (GH) –

The uncontrolled in its level can cause gigantism and acromegaly whereas its deficiency can lead to dwarfism

2. Prolactin (PRL) – regulation of growth of mammary glands

3. Thyroid stimulating hormone – acts on the thyroid gland

4. Luteinizing hormone – acts on gonads of males

5. Follicle stimulating hormones – acts on gonads of females

The posterior pituitary secretes hormones such as-

1. Oxytocin

2. Vasopressin

Thyroid Gland-

· it secretes T₃ (triiodothyronine) and T₄ (thyroxine)

· deficiency of thyroid hormones causes hypothyroidism and goitre

· increase in these hormones causes hyperthyroidism and

Parathyroid Gland-

· it regulates the calcium levels of bones and blood

· takes up extra Ca²⁺ ions from the bones and releases it in blood

Adrenal Gland-

· adrenal cortex- hormones secreted through these regulate carbohydrate metabolism

· its deficiency leads to Adison’s Disease

· adrenal medulla – secretes hormones such as epinephrine and norepinephrine

· these help in flight or fight, that is, running away in times of danger or facing them

Pancreas-

· these secrete hormones through 3 types of cells

· alpha cells- secrete glucagon

– regulates blood glucose levels:

– increase of blood sugar causes hyperglycemia

– deficiency causes- hypoglycemia

· beta cells- secrete insulin

– these also regulate blood glucose levels

– their deficiency causes diabetes mellitus

· delta cells- secrete somatostatin

Testis-

· testis are situated in the scrotal sac of man

· these secrete androgens – testosterone

· testosterone acts for the development of male accessory organs, secondary sexual characters

· it regulates the formation of sperms

Ovary-

· the primary sex organ of female

· it secretes estrogen and progesterone

· estrogen helps in the development of mammary glands., female secondary sexual characters and regulates the formation of follicles

· progesterone acts during pregnancy

These were the hormones secreted by the endocrine glands. The list extends to numerous hormones. To sum up, hormones play major roles in our body and life. Without these messengers our body would not work efficiently. A healthy diet plays an important role in their regulation. Their deficiencies, if detected early, can treated by using supplements prescribed by the doctor.