Member GODHULI MONDAL
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In simple terms, Probability is defined as the chances of occurring a certain event.
This is particularly true when we are not entirely sure about the outcomes. The events are uncertain hence they can be tough to calculate. This is particularly a field of statistics and analysis.
The formula for calculating the probability :
Probability of any given event = ( likely to happen) / (total number of outcomes)
Let’s take an example to understand.
We are taking an unbiased coin here.
Hence, we are likely to get heads or tails.
Therefore the head and tails have the same possibility of falling which is 50-50. So here probability is used to represent it mathematically.
Probability of a coin landing on heads
P(A) = 1/2
Taking another example now:
If we roll unbiased dice, what’s the probability of rolling a three?
Total outcomes = 6
Likely to happen= 1
Using the formula above:
P(A)= 1/6
Some important points that must be noted while dealing with probability problems:
1. The probability of an event can only be between any value between 0
2. It can also be mentioned as a percentage
Random Variable
In the field of probability and subject statistics, random variables are used to measure the outcomes of a random event. Hence, they are likely to take any values. They are used particularly in case there is a requirement to measure real number values. For example, the letter X may be assigned to describe the total of numbers after two dice are rolled. In this case, X could be 1 + 1 = 2, 6 + 6 = 12. Because the highest dice value is 6 and the lowest one is 5.
All random variables are diverse than any algebraical values.
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Conjunction
In a sentence, conjunction is known as a part of speech that has only function i.e. to connect words. These words may be simple words or they might be phrases, clauses, or whole individual sentences. As it is known, conjunctions are supposed to be a part of regular grammar knowledge.
Types of Conjunctions
Several different types of conjunctions do various functions within different types of sentence structures.
1. Subordinating Conjunctions: They are responsible to join dependent clauses with independent clauses.
2. Coordinating Conjunctions – They are responsible to join two or more sentences, principal clauses, normal words, or any other parts of speech that are of the same syntactic importance.
3. Correlative Conjunctions – They are responsible to join phrases and words that hold a certain equal value in a sentence. They work in pairs always.
4. Conjunctive adverbs –They are responsible to join two clauses. They act as an adverb and also display order, contrast, cause and effect etc.
Examples of Conjunctions:
The conjunctions are highlighted below in some examples:
1. I tried to kick the ball but kicked the goalpost instead.
2. I have fifteen dogs and three cats.
3. You are allowed to have Indian cuisine or Mexican cuisine.
4. Neither the blue bag nor the leather one was available at the store
5. All my family members worked hard so that we could live the life we wanted for so long.
Interjections
In a sentence, interjections are the type of words that are used to reveal strong emotions that appear fickle if described with basic words. They are used in sentences to show feelings like surprise, disgust, joy, excitement, or enthusiasm.
Examples of Interjections
The interjections are highlighted below in some examples:
1. Hey! Take the food and leave the table.
2. Oh, I thought you would accompany us to dinner.
3. Brilliant! Now I can die in peace.
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Cacti are some plants that have fleshy stems, blocks, and the branches contain scales and thorns and have no leafy structure or branch. The pad of cactus is changed stalks. They have a certain slimy waxy coating. The pointed thorns are transformed leaves that break up the breezes that are found blowing over pad surfaces. Additional to that they help in shading the stalk. The physical structure of the roots is usually distinguished by broad and shallow bodies, The rainwater is also covered up soon.
The process of photosynthesis:
Every plant that is available on the earth does photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the process of accumulating carbon dioxide within holes that are found in their leaves, further known as “stomata” and using sunlight and water to transform it into sugar and oxygen, so that the plants get energy for their activities. Cactus use CAM photosynthesis. This is a bit different. In this CAM photosynthesis, the stomata open only during the nighttime. It can also be said that the stomata open only when it faces a cooler surrounding. This is done to avoid loss of moisture through transpiration.
But other than water, sunlight is also an essential component of photosynthesis. Hence, during the daytime, the sunlight is scorching everywhere. That is the ideal time for pre-storing the sunlight in the leaves. Yes, stomata remain closed but to acquire sunlight there is no need for open stomata. The closed ones do the job quite similarly too.
It is also true that the cactus might look dangerous and self-protective. However, they are not at all immune to many predators, including rodents, bears, and some humans. They are a beautiful part of our ecosystem. So they should be taken care of, and protected too. There are already harsh and cruel people on the planet. And therefore let’s take some responsibility to save them.
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Cybersecurity is the process of protecting networks, data, servers, mobile devices, computers, and other electronic systems. This can also be termed as IT security. The name fits in a range of circumstances including the business world and the digitalized brand.
– Network security This is the primary type of cybersecurity that includes protecting computer interface from invaders like hidden malware and targeted attackers.
– Application security: This eliminates the threats that are indulged upon the software part and check the insiders of all applications.
– Information security: This one is responsible to defend and protect the personal and personal data that are in a system.
-Operational security: This one includes the area under which the major decisions and permissions are taken and done.
– End-user education: The ultimate protection is given by this. This checks all the unpredictable threats and everything that is not easily detected by any other things.
Securing Cyber Security
1. The software must always remain updated.
2. One should always use Anti-Virus and Farewell to ensure extra safety on their devices.
3. Passwords and Management of passwords are important. Keep them unique and sorted.
4. To ensure extra and additional security, a Two-Factor or Multi-Factor Authentication should also be included
5. Keep yourself updated about scams, malware, and threats that have a chance of affecting your device.
6. Lay extra protection on your sensitive and essential personal information.
7. Keep data and information backed up.
8. Avoid using unknown Wifi whenever possible
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SMOG:
The environment is rising with activities of smog. The world is wrapped under such conditions now. This is also a particular type of pollution. The name smog simply means smoke and fog together. When smog occurs it creates an environment dense, humid, unbreathable, and heavy. Thus the toxicity level is too high.
The origin of smog was around the 1900s. The country of London got wrapped in the evil clutches of smog. It created an unescapable surrounding and everything around it turned gloomy. The condition included foggy weather dipped in smokes. The scientist named it “smog”.
Formation:
In general, smog is formed when complicated chemical reactions occur in the environment under the same area.
The reactions are comprised of volatile components. There are many compounds involved in these particular processes that come from automobiles, industries, etc. The chemicals involved are part of day-to-day actions. Plastic products on burning openly deliver a chemical residue that produces poisonous vapors. Although, the maximum responsibility for creating fog is taken by the automobiles used daily.
The smog not only depends on poisonous smokes. It also depends on weather conditions. Because without it there won’t be any fog. The most important role in the weather condition is played by the temperature. A rise in temperature of the particular area marks the increment of smog creation as well. So the chances of forming smog are better on hot humid days. This occurs as the layer that is creating the smog grows dense and rigid as soon as the heated air gets settled on the lower surface. This creates a layer that cannot be moved easily.
Effects:
1. Smog causes lung diseases such as bronchitis, lung cancer, pneumonia, etc.
2. A gradual effect on the ozone layer causing it to deplete.
3. One receive low Vitamin D which means the bone density becomes less
4. Shorter and lower crop produce
6. The visibility is reduced. Sometimes it becomes so dense that the visibility becomes almost zero.
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Causes of Noise Pollution
1. Industrialization: Heavy pieces of machinery that are used for industrial purposes in major cases. There are responsible collectively for such loud noise levels. Other than that the there are other components like exhaust fans, grinding mills that add to the cause.
2. Poor Urban Planning
Urban areas are majorly crowded. The crowd leads people to gossip, shout and create lots of chaos. Thus might seem feeble but when chaos is created collectively over a period noise pollution occurs.
Moreover, party bars and pubs have loud music playing all night. They add to the element that causes pollution as well.
3. Transportation
With the growing population, the transportation facilities are improvising as well. The improvised transportation gives a noisy mess to society. This includes train noises, buses, airplanes, and many more.
4. Construction Activities
Construction is surely one of the leading activities that contribute immensely to noise pollution. There are loud levels drilling machine, breaking breaks, plumbing, etc that creates one of the loudest noise.
Effects of Noise Pollution
1. Hearing Problems
The human hearing level is restricted too. They can hear up to a certain level only.
Thus excessive loud noises can affect the eardrum portion and cause permanent loss of hearing or deafness.
2. Psychological Issues
Psychological health takes a toll when people are exposed to loud noises daily. This leads to unnecessary rage, professional behavior, anxiety, and hypertension.
3. Physical Problems
Multiple physical problems might arise in any humans including headache, migraine, irritation, and many more.
4. Sleeping Disorders
The sleep cycle and sleep pattern totally get disrupted with noise pollution. Sleeping requires a much calmer environment in general.
Normally, a good sleep cures many of the problems.
5. Cardiovascular Damages
There is a sudden blood pressure rise, and direct damages to cardiovascular tissues are also made. The stress also creates much pressure. If not taken proper care that can cause a cardiac arrest too.
6. Trouble Communicating
A communication gap is encountered here. A lot of mess and difficulty talking and discussing situation arises.
7. Effect on Animals and birds.
The hearing level of animals is much different than the of humans. The pets in the household crumble under high pressure. The birds are dependent on the sound for locating. For animals, sound is an important aspect. However, when there is noise pollution and cause they could not identify their respective sounds and fulfill their needs. Moreover, exposure to loud noises affects them physically as well. They can even turn permanent deaf.
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Glaucoma is an eye disease. In this, the optic nerve is damaged that causes blindness. Glaucoma can lead to a stage of permanent blindness.
Symptoms
1. Experiencing radiance/ circular illusion around lights
2. No clear visual image or visual loss
3. The eye may appear red
4. Mild or extreme eye irritation and eye pain.
5. Vomiting
Cause:
The symptoms are not entirely visible in the early stages. Just regular eye examinations can detect it at those times
The situation that happens inside the eye is that the intraocular pressure increases. This is caused by too much fluid that sometimes gets produced there is produced excessively and so the fluid blocks major eye portions. Anyone can develop glaucoma. But some particular people are sure to get one.
Types:
There are two types of glaucoma:
1. Open-angle Glaucoma: This type has numerous alternatives and is an extended condition
2. Angle-closure glaucoma: This type which may be caused under certain sudden condition or maybe as a separate chronic disease.
Detection:
It must be noted that damage made to the optic nerve and loss of vision from glaucoma is irreversible.
Now to determine the intraocular pressure, certain painless tests are conducted. Through these tests, the status of the optic nerve and drainage angle is checked. There is something called visual fields. Their sole purpose is to diagnose the presence of glaucoma. Not only that it also checks the increment or decrement of the particular condition.
Treatments:
1. Sometimes they are treated with the help of eye drops.
2. Then there is laser treatment or surgery.
The condition is critical and all of the situations are treated or taken under control through the above procedure.
At present, researches are being conducted all over the world to seize the rising cases of glaucoma. While treatment is absolutely necessary, the early detection of the disease is more important. Diagnosing at an early stage eliminates maximum threats and gives better improvement results.
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Joint probability
It is a type of probability that interpreters use to determine the chances of happening two things together at the same time. In simple terms, it means that we calculate the probability of a particular Event A, that is occurring at the same time as Event B.
In the mathematical term: “Joint probability is the probability of two events that are occurring together.”
It can also be further defined as the intersection of two or more events in terms of sets.
The use of joint probability is mainly for the analysts and statisticians who need to take into account both events occurring at the same time.
But we cannot use this to estimate and find out whether an event can occur in the presence or influence of another event.
Joint probability: Mathematical Discussion
Statistically, the joint probability of two events, which can be A and B, is written mathematically as P(A, B).
How to get this? We need to simply multiply the probability of Event Y and the probability of Event Z together.
Example:
Give the probability that number 3 will occur twice simultaneously when two distinct dices are rolled.
Solution:
Therefore, each die contains six possible numbers. Therefore, the probability of occurring three in a die is one-sixth or in decimal, it is equal to 0.1666. If we name the dice A and B. Therefore, the probabilities from each dice are as followed:
P(A) = 0.1666
P(B) = 0.1666
(Where P = Probability)
Therefore to calculate the final probability, we need om to multiply the probabilities of occurring three in the dices. They are 0.1666 as calculated earlier.
So the final probability of the problem is calculated as:
P(A,B) = 0.1666 x 0.1666 = 0.02777
Hence, the joint probability to get two threes while rolling two dices simultaneously gives is 0.02777.
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Sets are nothing but a collection or arrangement of distinct elements. They are classified into many categories.
Let’s discuss some of them:
Finite Set
This type of set contains only a particular number of elements.
Example: S = { x | x ∈ N and 100> x > 30 }
Infinite Set
This type of set contains an infinite number of elements.
Example: S = { y | y ∈ N and y > 0 }
Subset
If there are two sets such as Set A and Set B. And if further every element of A is an element of set B then we call A to be a subset of set B
Example: − Let, B= { 0, 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 9} and A= { 8, 9}. So, above A is a subset of set B as all the elements of set A are present in set B.
Proper Subset
If there are two sets such as Set A and Set B. A Set A is a proper subset of set B if and only if every element of A is an element of set B.
Example − Let, A= { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 } and B= { 1, 2 }.
Universal Set
A universal set is a set that contains all elements of the particular criteria. Hence all the sets from that area are subsets of this universal set. It is represented by U.
Example: The set of all plants on earth be U. So, the set of all cactus is a subset of U.
Empty Set or Null Set
A set which have no elements is known as Empty Set.
Example: S = { a| a ∈ N and 15< a< 14} = ∅
Singleton Set or Unit Set
A set which has only one element in it is called singleton set.
Example: S = { x | x ∈ N, 15> x > 13} = { 14}
Equal Set
If two sets have the exact same elements then they are known as equal sets.
Example: If A = { 12, 13, 14, 15, 17 } and B = { 17, 13, 12, 15, 14 }
Then they are equal sets
Equivalent Set
If the number of elements of two sets are equal, then they are known as equivalent sets.
Example: If A = { 0, 5, 2, 6 } and B = { 12, ,3 17, 92 }
Then they are equivalent sets.
Overlapping Sets
If two sets contain one same element then they are known as overlapping sets.
Example: X = { 11, 12, 61 } and Y= { 100, 12, 4 }. So, here is one common element ‘12’. Therefore, they are overlapping sets.
Disjoint Set
If there are two sets A and B. And if they have no common elements then they are known as disjoint sets.
Example: X= { 1, 3, 6 } and Y= { 17, 900, 124 }. No common elements are there so they are disjoint sets.
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Impact of carbon emissions on earth
The release of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, and water vapor causes global warming.
Carbon emission is also a greenhouse gas emission process that occurs when excessive carbon dioxide enters the air. The quantity of carbon emission is increasing day by day and month by month.
Now with this, we are encountering certain significant climate changes like extreme weather followed by tropical storms, wildfires, relentless droughts, and scorching heatwaves. Other than this the crop production is affected and so are the animals’ natural environments.
Carbon emissions are one of the prime causes that are hampering mother nature and earth. The planet is suffering due to excessive carbon emission, as they are the most emitted greenhouse gas.
Carbon dioxide is released from burning natural gas, oil, etc. Not only that the burning of biological substances, like, solid waste, trees, etc also discharges carbon dioxide. Thus, whenever that carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere in massive quantities over a long period, the mother earth gets affected.
From this, it is quite clear that rising levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere will cause devastating effects.
Global warming is increasing each day du this which is ultimately the earth’s climate. Now further this global warming causes hot storms, wildfires, harsh droughts, devastating heatwaves, and many more.
It directly affects mankind too. There is respiratory disease due to smog, which indirectly is formed from this CO2 mission.
Remedies to decrease carbon dioxide
Here are six options for removing carbon from the atmosphere:
1. Planting more and more trees will increase the rate of photosynthesis and hence increase the amount of carbon dioxide in nature.
Thus, increasing the forest, in general, has become essential to check the balance.
2. Combining trees on plantations can also eliminate carbon. Also increasing soil carbon can help farmers to remove carbon from the atmosphere.
3. Bio-energy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS)
Another method is Bio-energy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS). Here, biomass is used as an energy source in industries, power, or transportation plants.
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In the English language, tense is used to refer/understand different times. The three main tenses are past, present, or future.
Therefore we can say that the tense in a sentence has the responsibility to keep the track of time. They give us an understanding of the state or form of action.
But few points must be understood before we proceed into the details.
Tenses determine the time of the incident. Although in a sentence, there can be a time source without a tense too.
The tenses also do not suggest that the performing activity is taking place in the tense that is in it. It could be just the reference as well.
Types of Tense:
The different categories of tenses are listed below with one example each.
1. Simple Present: I jog in the morning daily.
2. Present Progressive: I am jogging now.
3: Present Perfect: I have just jog in the morning.
4. Simple Past: I jogged 5km yesterday.
5. Past Progressive: I was jogging for 5km straight.
6. Past Perfect: I had to jog my track before the breakfast
7. Past Perfect Progressive: I had been jogging on the track when the accident occurred.
8. Future: I am going to jog tomorrow.
9. Future Progressive: I will be jogging tomorrow’s track.
10. Future Perfect: I will have to jog the track by tomorrow.
Then there are two more types which we will be defined in details and with more examples:
11. Present participle:
A present participle denotes immediate action concerning the time denoted by a finite verb in its clause.
Examples:
a. My cats have not eaten anything due to the weather.
b. I have never been to Paris.
c. She has written all the answers by herself.
d. She has gone to the museum this morning.
e. He has never eaten this kind of burger.
12. Present Perfect Progressive:
A Present Perfect Continuous tense acts by using two different auxiliary verbs together that are placed in relation to the main verb.
Examples:
a. I have been playing the ukelele since morning.
b. I am sleepy because I have been working.
c. We have not been cooking since the accident.
d. How long have you been taking the course?
e. It has been snowing since 5 pm
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The list of Governor Generals are provided below:
1. Warren Hastings: He was in power from 1772 through 1785. He is known as the first Governor of Bengal. He came into the British East India Company in 1750 where he joined in as a clerk. Later when he came to India he established his work and showed dedication and ultimately acquire the position
Out of few achievements, the Asiatic Society of Bengal was formed by him William Jones in 1784.
2. Sir John Macpherson: He was in power for a very short period of 1785-1786. He was soon replaced and thus he didn’t lay much impact.
3. Lord Cornwallis: He was the Governor-General from 1786 to 1793. He gave birth to the Zamindari system in Bengal. He also established a system of revenue and land taxes. There were mini police stations and the state was divided under different police inspectors according to the area. He was the former of Civil Service In India.
4. Sir John Shore: Sir John Shore hold his office from1793 to 1798. He is famous for introducing the Charter Act of 1793.
5. Lord Wellesley Next has Lord Wellesley, who came into power in 1798 and hold his office through 1805. He introduced the system of Subsidiary Alliance. He is widely known as the Father of Civil Services in India.
6. Sir George Barlow: He was in power from 1805 to 1807.
7. Lord Minto I: He came in power in 1807 and continued till 1813. He was known for the Treaty of Amritsar.
8. Lord Hastings Then came Lord Hasting who was Governor-General from 1813 to 1823. He was the one to introduce Ryotwari and Mahalawari system in Bombay.
9. Lord Amherst: He was in office from 1823-1828. No major changes were made.
10. Lord William Bentick: He worked from 1828 to 1835. Lord William Henry Cavendish-Bentinck or simply Lord William Bentick was the first Governor-General of India, before that the position was known as Governor General of Bengal. He worked to abolish Sati Daha Pratha, killing of female infants, and child sacrifices. He also found the first Medical College in Calcutta.
11. Sir Charles Metcalfe: He holds this position for an extremely short period of just one year, 1835-1836.
12. Lord Auckland: He was in power from 1836 to 1842. His governance experienced the first Afghan War.
13. Lord Dalhousie: Lord Dalhousie hold office from 1848 to 1856. He made significant changes. He started the first Railway line from Bombay to Thane He also started the first Telegraph line from Calcutta to Agar. Both in the year 1853. Furthermore, he introduced the Doctrine of Lapse. He initiated the construction of the famous GT road. He acted on social causes too and passed the Widow Remarriage Bill.
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Nuclear wastes are treated with extra attention as they are radioactive in nature. Any material is known to be radioactive if and only if it is either affected by radioactive reactions or has the nature of being radioactive in its character. All radioactive waste decays after a certain period of time. This however depends on the half-life of the nucleus of that particular material.
Therefore, radioactive wastes/ nuclear wastes have three categories, which depends totally on radioactivity level:
1. High-Level Waste: This requires maximum care and protective storage. It is kept where it can be stored in a cold condition. The main source is the nuclear plant where uranium fuel is burned. The fuel is discarded as waste can also be qualified as HLL. An excessive amount of attention and care must be provided while working on the materials.
2. Intermediate Level Waste: This much less threatening than the HLW. But this requires protection and some mind of shielding too. It has much higher radioactivity than the LLW but lesser than HLW. They consist of small materials like chemical sludges, metal fuel cladding, etc.
3. Low-Level Waste: This is the least harmful one out of all of these. They have much lower radioactivity. The number of LLW that can be found surrounding is much higher than the previous two. They comprise medical wastes from hospitals, clothing items, or objects that have a rare touch of radioactivity in them.
Management of Nuclear waste:
1. The first step taken is the treatment that alters the water that is removed from the plant through the filtration process and chemical treatments.
2. The waste collected should be transferred safely to the dumping areas. That is done through solidification of materials (LLW and ILW) in cement or is frozen and fixed into a glass matrix(HLW) to avoid contamination while transporting.
3. Extreme isolating conditions followed by retrieval circumstances are two factors that are taken into account while storing the waste.
4. A nuclear waste is discarded completely when it has changed into a completely non-radioactive material after multiple years of decay.
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Biohazards are any natural material that originates due to chemical and biochemical processes and can cause a serious and severe threat to living mankind, living creatures, and birds and to the current environment. Biologically, they can be anything, including, human body fluids, etc. Inappropriate deposition and unsanitary methods to dispose of these are highly dangerous to the world.
So, for this reason, body wastes and other biological and medical wastes should be treated and dumped with proper care otherwise there can be a situation where waste is spread through all parts of our environmental system.
The symbol of biohazard is quite popular and is attached below:
The symbol defines the Four Levels of Biohazard:
The levels or groups as divided by CDC are:
1. Biohazard level 1: This contains factors that are dangerous in nature but keep a healthy human body unaffected by any diseases.
2. Biohazard level 2: The direct consumption of such material can infect a perfectly healthy human body.
3. Biohazard level 3: The direct or indirect consumption of pathogens can cause serious diseases ultimately resulting to cause airborne diseases.
4. Biohazard level 4: This consumption or getting it directly or indirectly causes life-threatening damages that are incurable at maximum times.
Effects on Environment:
1. The mishandled biohazard wastes if disposed of in water bodies and unprotected ground can severely threaten the wildlife around these places. This not only includes wastes but also certain medicines that have been discarded. Both of them can be misleading and dangerous.
2. Proper protection of groundwater so that it does not get touched by biohazard wastes.
3. Landfills must be treated with care. Dumped medical wastes and discarded equipment and medication if not treated properly can cause the soil beneath to pollute.
4. There is a high chance of increasing radioactivity pollution through improper disposal of radioactive materials.
5. Incineration in landfills can spread through the air contaminating it completely.
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A telescope is a device that is manufactured to see clearly distant objects. The result of this science has caused us to see magnified versions have distantly located objects such as planets, stars, and many more. The invention of the telescope marked a greater scope of learning and knowing far away objects particularly in the field of astronomy. It involved engaging and improving the studies of radiation from celestial bodies.
It was Galileo who invented the first telescope in the early 17th century. There were studies of extraterrestrial and celestial bodies after that. There were researches that were impossible before this particular invention. This completely and totally changes the course of astronomy and revolutionized the subject. Yes, there were magnification units before the telescope too. But none of them are used as magnification instruments to look at the celestial bodies. With this, the study of the universe gets another vision and outlook.
Types of Telescopes
1. Refractor Telescopes: This telescope is one of the most common types that is used. The name of this telescope suggests that it acts by refracting light so that it can create an image.
2. Reflector Telescopes: This telescope uses a mirror to form a reflecting image in the eyepiece.
3. Dobsonian Telescopes: This is one type of reflector telescope that is much lighter in weight and much less expensive too. But they have certain disadvantages.
4. Maksutov-Cassegrain Telescopes: It is quite a different type of telescope that deals with mirrors and lenses altogether.
Three main functions of a telescope:
1. It gives a brightened version which is also known as the light-gathering power.
2. It let us see the fine details and clearer picture also known as resolution.
3. And the most important one. It gives magnified images of the objects.
Formula:
Magnification Formula= objective lens focal length / eyepiece lens focal length
